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THE MEANING OF SACRIFICE

While the centrality of the sacrificial rituals in early Indian religion is clear, the nature and meaning of the actual performances is often obscure. This is due partly to developments that took place throughout the centuries in the religious tradition and partly to the complexity of the concepts involved. In the earliest period the sacrifice seems to have been performed in order to win the favor of a god by making a gift for which he would return riches and a long life. Thus in one hymn offerings are made to Indra who is told, in a rather peremptory fashion, to accept them and "then fix thy mind upon bestowing treasure." (Rig Veda I:54). Related to this was the thought of the sacrifice as a thank-offering, a gift made for favors received.

An important development took place when the conclusion was reached that if a sacrifice were properly performed the gods could not withhold the boon requested. In other words, the sacrifice was understood to be able to provide the results desired, and the will of the gods became almost irrelevant. The power of the sacrifice in bringing about the creation of the world was noted in the Hymn of man, and the sacrificial ritual thus assumed enormous importance within the whole cultural tradition. One result of this belief in the potency of the ritual was an exaltation of the role of the performer. Since the ritual was of such great consequence, it had to be correctly performed; the misuse of a word or phrase might lead to disaster. The sacrificer was thus regarded as controlling a power that could bring blessing or destruction. The priest therefore became a key figure in the whole drama of the cosmic order. This development undoubtedly explains in part at least the unique function of the Brahman in Indian culture, for he was a man who controlled the secret of the universe. A further result of this attitude towards sacrifice and the role of the sacrificer was that the gods became less important than the performer and the ritual act.

The following selections are taken from a Brahmana, one of a class of Vedic literature that deals, in great detail, with the ritual performances. They illustrate the way in which the significance of the sacrifice was heightened by seeing analogies and correspondences between the materials of the sacrifice and other materials. Especial significance was seen in word similarities, and the kind of etymological reasoning shown here occupies an important place in Indian literature. The second selection indicates the extent of the claims made by the Brahman priests.

After that (the priest) pronounces the offering-prayer to Tanunapat. Tanunapat, doubtless, is the summer; for the summer burns the bodies (tanun tapati) of these creatures. The gods, at that time, appropriated the summer, and deprived their rivals of the summer; and now this one also appropriates the summer, and deprives his rivals of the summer: this is the reason why he pronounces the offering prayer to Tanunapat.

He then pronounces the offering prayer to the Ids. The Ids (praises), doubtless, are the rains; they are the rains, inasmuch as the vile, crawling (vermin) which shrink during the summer and winter, then (in the rainy season) move about in quest of food, as it were, praising the rains: therefore the Ids are the rains. The gods, at that time, appropriated the rains, and deprived their rivals of the rain; and now this one also appropriates the rains, and deprives his rivals of the rains: this is the reason why he pronounces the offering prayer to the Ids.

He then pronounces the offering prayer to the barhis (covering of sacrificial grass on the altar). The barhis, doubtless, is the autumn; the barhis is the autumn, inasmuch as these plants which shrink during the summer and winter grow by the rains, and in autumn lie spread open after the fashion of barhis: for this reason the barhis is the autumn. The gods, at that time, appropriated the autumn, and deprived their rivals of the autumn; and now this one also appropriates the autumn, and deprives his rival of the autumn; this is why he pronounces the prayer to the barhis.

(from Satapatha Brahmana, I:5:3:10-27)